高樓低廈,人潮起伏,
名爭利逐,千萬家悲歡離合。

閑雲偶過,新月初現,
燈耀海城,天地間留我孤獨。

舊史再提,故書重讀,
冷眼閑眺,關山未變寂寞!

念人老江湖,心碎家國,
百年瞬息,得失滄海一粟!

徐訏《新年偶感》

2012年4月17日星期二

Bjørn Lomborg: The Problem of Priorities



COPENHAGEN – This decade has seen remarkable progress against humanity’s greatest challenges. Consider the declaration of victory over polio in India, which seemed impossible ten years ago. January marked one year since the country’s last reported case. Or look at the strides made against malaria: over the past decade, the number of cases has been reduced by 17%, and the number of deaths has dropped by 26%.

Despite global population growth and economic crisis, absolute poverty – the proportion of people living on less than $1.25 a day – is falling in every region of the world. In fact, the United Nations Millennium Development Goal of cutting extreme poverty in half has been achieved five years ahead of time.

Just a few years ago, the use of male circumcision as a tool in the fight against HIV/AIDS was largely unknown. Today, UNAIDS and the World Health Organization recommend it as a means to combat HIV/AIDS, and more than ten African countries are implementing strategies to increase its availability. Similarly, the concept of using geo-engineering to respond to climate change has moved from science fiction to an area of serious research.

This decade has also witnessed a 60% increase in global development aid. Bill Gates’s Giving Pledge challenge has graduated from concept to campaign, with at least $125 billion promised to good causes.

But, while the last decade has given much reason for cheer, there are areas in which we cannot claim such success. Climate change has emerged as one of the most talked-about problems, yet global negotiations have fallen apart, and we are barely any closer to cutting carbon emissions than we were ten years ago.

Similarly, violent conflicts continue to take a toll that is far too high. And, while the world met the Millennium Development Goal for providing clean drinking water five years early, the provision of sanitation has fallen behind: an astonishing one-third of the world’s population, 2.5 billion people, lack access to basic sanitation, and more than one billion people defecate in the open.
Other problems have emerged and grown over the decade. If current patterns continue, tobacco use may account for some 10 million deaths per year by 2030, with most occurring in low- and middle-income countries: we might see roughly one billion tobacco-related deaths in this century, compared to 100 million in the twentieth century. Cardiovascular diseases account for 13 million deaths in low- and middle-income countries each year, more than a quarter of the entire death toll, and risk factors are growing.

The state of challenges facing humanity changes rapidly. So does our knowledge of how best to respond. Policymakers and philanthropists need access to regularly updated information on how to use limited funds effectively.

The Copenhagen Consensus project, which I direct, provides a link between academic research and concrete economic analysis that can be used by decision-makers in the real world. Every four years, researchers and Nobel laureates work to identify the smartest responses to the biggest problems facing humanity.

In 2004, the Copenhagen Consensus highlighted the need to prioritize measures to control and treat HIV/AIDS. More money and attention was soon devoted to HIV prevention and treatment. In 2008, the Copenhagen Consensus focused the attention of policymakers and philanthropists on investments in micronutrient provision. Public acceptance of this idea led to an increase in efforts to reduce “hidden hunger” – that is, people suffering from not getting the nutrients that they need.

This May, more than 30 Nobel laureates and researchers will work together once again to identify the smartest ways to respond to global challenges, based on the latest information about the toughest problems facing our world.

Since 2008, the global economic crisis has made it even more necessary to ensure that development and aid spending is used wisely, where it can make the biggest difference. The Copenhagen Consensus project carries out the difficult task of comparing one set of initiatives with another by using fundamental economic tools and principles. 

First, teams of world-renowned expert economists write research papers on the costs and benefits of a range of investments that address specific challenges. Debate and discussion is encouraged by ensuring that three papers are written for each topic, so that a range of expert opinions is available.

This provides a framework with which we can see the full price tag, incorporating all of the costs, benefits, and spin-offs to society from using a limited amount of money in a particular way.

All of this research constitutes a valuable contribution to international development and aid policy. But the project goes a step further. A panel of the world’s top economists – including four Nobel laureates – test and debate the experts’ recommendations, and identify the most attractive possibilities. Alongside the research papers, the Nobel laureates’ prioritized list provides an important input for policymakers and philanthropists.

While the past decade has witnessed much progress and reason for hope, there are still many important problems to tackle: malnutrition, sanitation, education, civil conflicts, climate change, and natural disasters, to name some of the most prominent.

But are the most prominent problems necessarily those that we should address immediately? The research and the prioritized list make us consider the reasons for our current priorities, and challenge us to spend limited resources to do the most good first. And what are the best things to do first? We find out in May.


Bjørn Lomborg is an adjunct professor at the Copenhagen Business School, where he founded and directs its Copenhagen Consensus Center, which seeks to study environmental problems and solutions using the best available analytical methods. He is the author of the bestselling book The Skeptical Environmentalist and Cool It, the basis of an eponymous documentary film.

Dominique Moisi: France’s Election by Default



PARIS – Rousseau versus Hobbes: on the cover of the French magazine Philosophie, the two leading contenders in France’s upcoming presidential election, the incumbent Nicolas Sarkozy and the Socialist candidate François Hollande, are dressed up accordingly. “The real presidential contest” according to the magazine, pits the consensual and contractual vision of Rousseau (Hollande) against the violent “every man is a wolf to his fellow man” vision of Hobbes (Sarkozy).

Philospophie’s take on the French presidential election may contain some truth, but reality is far more prosaic – and far less intellectual. To understand the complexities of the race and Sarkozy’s recent (but still relative) surge, sports might be a better reference point than philosophy.

Consider Hollande’s strategy in soccer terms. Having scored early (establishing a lead in public-opinion polls), he has found himself in the position of an Italian coach practicing the “catenaccio” tactics of 20 years ago – a purely defensive strategy to keep Sarkozy from coming back. It might work, but it has also contributed to the tedium of Hollande’s campaign and the growing lack of enthusiasm for his person.

Hollande wanted so much to stress his “normality” compared to the excesses of Sarkozy’s character that he ended up appearing banal. As a result, he has found himself hemmed in by the crypto-revolutionary aura of the far-left candidate, Jean-Luc Melenchon, and Sarkozy’s hyper-energetic dynamism.

Mohammed Merah’s killing spree in Toulouse in March has also worked in favor of Sarkozy, who has been happy to shift the electoral debate from social injustice to security issues.
But, even if Sarkozy looks stronger now than he did at the beginning of the election campaign, the challenges he faces remain formidable, and may be impossible to overcome.

Never in the history of the Fifth Republic has the same partisan majority won a presidential contest more than three times in succession. Sarkozy’s re-election, following his victory in 2007 and Jacques Chirac’s triumphs in 1995 and 2002, would mean a fourth consecutive victory for the Gaullist right, which would be all the more remarkable in view of the economic situation in France, Europe, and the world.

Beyond these structural and historical factors, there is the issue of personalities. In this regard, the contest is not so much between Hobbes and Rousseau as between Bonaparte and Clement Attlee, the famously dull post-war British prime minister (of whom Churchill once said “he has much to be modest about”). In other words, the election may simply become a contest between rejection of Sarkozy and lack of passion for Hollande. As a result, abstention – usually remarkably low in French presidential elections – may play a major role.

In the meantime, regret can be sensed across the political spectrum. “If only we could have a more presentable candidate than Sarkozy,” mumble conservatives. “If only we could have a more charismatic candidate than Hollande,” comes the refrain from the Socialist camp.

Ultimately, this campaign will prove remarkable for the lack of serious attention paid to the candidates’ programs. The French perceive no real difference between an incumbent who has not kept his promises and a challenger whose promises are untenable. A suicidal denial of reality seems to unite the candidates and their supporters, best formulated as follows: “Don’t address serious issues, such as the national debt, during the election campaign, and we will not expect you to confront them seriously when you are in power.”

Consider the recent cover of The Economist, which depicts Sarkozy and Hollande as the two male characters in Manet’s famous painting “Déjeuner sur l’Herbe” (Lunch on the Grass). Surrounded by naked women, they are supposed to illustrate the “French art of life” that France can no longer afford.

Where is Churchill and his call to arms, effort, and sacrifice? Is France preparing to waste another five years, regardless of the election’s outcome?

Of course, in strong winds and high seas, the experience of the ship’s captain matters. Yet, given the problems of the French economy and the constraints of the European Union, not to mention those of the world economy in a global age, no president will have much room for maneuver.


Dominique Moisi is the founder of the French Institute of International Affairs (IFRI) and a professor at Institute d’Etudes Politiques (Sciences Po) in Paris. He is the author of The Geopolitics of Emotion: How Cultures of Fear, Humiliation, and Hope are Reshaping the World.

Minxin Pei: The Paranoid Style in Chinese Politics



HONG KONG – Henry Kissinger, who learned a thing or two about political paranoia as Richard Nixon’s national security adviser and Secretary of State, famously said that even a paranoid has real enemies. This insight – by the man who will be known forever for helping to open China to the West – goes beyond the question of whether to forgive an individual’s irrational behavior. As the scandal surrounding Bo Xilai’s dramatic fall from power shows, it applies equally well to explaining the apparently irrational behavior of regimes.

Most reasonable people would agree that the world’s largest ruling party (with nearly 80 million members), with a nuclear-armed military and an unsurpassed internal-security apparatus at its disposal, faces negligible threats to its power at home. And yet the ruling Communist Party has remained brutally intolerant of peaceful dissent and morbidly fearful of the information revolution.

Judging by the salacious details revealed so far in the Bo affair, including the implication of his wife in the murder of a British businessman, it seems that the Party does indeed have good reason to be afraid. If anything, its hold on power is far more tenuous than it appears. Indeed, Bo, the former Party chief of Chongqing, has come to symbolize the systemic rot and dysfunction at the core of a regime often viewed as effective, flexible, and resilient.

Of course, corruption scandals involving high-ranking Chinese officials are common. Two members of the Party Politburo have been jailed for bribery and debauchery. But what sets the Bo scandal apart from routine instances of greed and lust is the sheer lawlessness embodied by the behavior of members of China’s ruling elites. The Bo family, press reports allege, not only has amassed a huge fortune, but also was involved in the murder of a Westerner who had served as the family’s chief private conduit to the outside world.

While in power, Bo was lauded for crushing organized crime and restoring law and order in Chongqing. Now it has come to light that he and his henchmen illegally detained, tortured, and imprisoned many innocent businessmen during this campaign, simultaneously stealing their assets. While publicly proclaiming their patriotism, other members of China’s ruling elites are stashing their ill-gotten wealth abroad and sending their children to elite Western schools and universities.

The Bo affair has revealed another source of the regime’s fragility: the extent of the power struggle and disunity among the Party’s top officials. Personal misdeeds or character flaws did not trigger Bo’s fall from power; these were well known. He was simply a loser in a contest with those who felt threatened by his ambition and ruthlessness.

The vicious jockeying for power that the party faces during its leadership succession this year, and the public rift that has resulted from Bo’s humiliating fall, must have gravely undermined mutual trust among the party’s top leaders. China’s history of political turmoil, and the record of failed authoritarian regimes elsewhere, suggests that a disunited autocracy does not last very long. Its most dangerous enemy typically comes from within.

Moreover, the amateurish manner in which the Party has handled the Bo scandal indicates that it has no capacity for dealing with a fast-moving political crisis in the Internet age. While political infighting obviously might lie behind the Chinese government’s hesitancy and ineptness in managing the scandal, the Party undermined its public credibility further by initially trying to cover up the seriousness of the affair.

After Wang Lijun, Bo’s former police chief, very publicly sought asylum in the United States’ consulate in Chengdu, a city some four hours from Chongqing, the Party thought that it could keep the Bo skeleton in the closet. Using language that would make George Orwell blush, officials declared that Wang “suffered from exhaustion from overwork” and was receiving “vacation-style treatment”; in fact, he was being interrogated by the secret police.

What made the Party’s top brass lose face – and sleep – was the failure of China’s famed “Great Firewall” during the Bo saga. Attempts to censor the Internet and mobile text services failed miserably. Chinese citizens, for the first time in history, were able to follow – and openly voice their opinions about – an unfolding power struggle at the very top of the Party almost in real time.

Fortunately for the Party, public outrage over the lawlessness and corruption of leaders like Bo has been expressed in cyberspace, not in the streets. But who knows what will happen when the next political crisis erupts?

China’s leaders, we can be sure, are asking themselves precisely that question, which helps to explain why a regime that has apparently done so well for so long is so afraid of its own people.

It is difficult to say whether a paranoid with real enemies is easier to deal with than one without any. But, for China’s government, which rules the world’s largest country, paranoia itself has become the problem. Overcoming it requires not only a change of mindset, but a total transformation of the political system.


Minxin Pei is Professor of Government at Claremont McKenna College.

2012年4月16日星期一

邢少文:新鴻基案背後的地產霸權



有著自由市場模範生之稱的中國香港地區,近來官商勾結事件頻頻曝出。繼特首曾蔭權被質疑接受房地產發展商東海集團利益輸送後不久,香港廉政公署調查新鴻基地產案再次成為震動香江的大事件。

3月29日,廉政公署以涉嫌觸犯《防止賄賂條例》及公職人員行為失當罪為由,拘捕新鴻基地產兩名執行董事郭炳江、郭炳聯兄弟及香港特區政府前政務司司長許仕仁。

從今年3月19日至今,此案中已共有8人被捕,其中3名為新地執行董事,包括新地執行董事陳巨源。

在新鴻基案背後,可能有今日香港社會頗有怨言的地產霸權作祟。

天際線背後的家族

3月29日晚,郭氏兄弟及許仕仁均獲保釋。隨後郭氏兄弟召開記者招待會自稱「清白」,並稱公司運轉一切正常。目前,案件的調查結果,仍待進一步的消息披露。

但廉署調查事件已然給這家一直做本分的香港最大地產商之一蒙上塵埃,3月30日新鴻基股市復牌,遭到市場恐慌性拋售,狂瀉13.1%,市值蒸發381.82億港元。

新鴻基案引發的強烈關注,不僅在於是地產巨頭,還有其家族背景。不同於經典香港電影所輸出的黑社會底層打拼文化,現實香港輸出的是一個又一個底層打拼後成就財富家族的勵志文化。這些家族不僅有奮鬥故事,也在不斷上演著類似TVB劇集的豪門恩怨劇情。

在過往歲月中,新鴻基充滿著白手起家奮鬥拼搏的傳奇色彩。而這個傳奇的成長,與香港房地產業的發展歷程密切相關。

上世紀20年代,原籍廣東省中山市的郭得勝在香港從小雜貨店起步,至經營商品批發,1958年,郭得勝與馮景禧、李兆基等8人合組永業有限公司,開始進軍地產業。1963年,3人各投資100萬元創辦新鴻基企業有限公司。

60年代,正值香港中小型工廠蓬勃發展之際,人口快速增長,郭氏等人憑藉其做日本拉鍊產品代理時與工業界建立的聯繫,瞭解到中小廠商對多層工業樓宇的殷切需求,遂將分層出售、分期付款的售樓方式移植于工業樓宇,重點發展多層工業大廈,此舉受到山寨式廠家的歡迎。

1960年1月至1983年3月,香港政府為了減少現金支出,向擬徵收私人土地的擁有者發出換地權益書,土地的擁有者可選擇收取現金,或日後在新界任何新市鎮發展區換取建築用地。70年代末至80年代初,郭得勝看准香港人口膨脹,日後必然向新界新市鎮發展的趨勢,遂運用手上資金大量購入新界土地換地權益書。1978年香港經濟轉趨繁榮,刺激地價樓市飆升,新地也進入收成期,所推出的樓盤都獲利豐厚。

新鴻基地產逐漸由工廠大廈發展至購物中心、寫字樓及住宅屋苑等。到80年代中葉,新地已成立逾100家附屬公司及聯營公司,均從事與地產相關的業務,成為香港最大的地產公司之一,也是最專業的地產公司。

1984年,隨著《中英聯合聲明》中對土地供應做出的限制,及後來港府推行的勾地制度,特區政府對土地財政的依賴也加強了土地的壟斷,香港成為寸土寸金之地,地價、租金高漲,七八十年代累積購入換地權益書和農地的新鴻基自然成為地產巨擘。

香港房地產曾經歷數個週期性泡沫與低迷的沉浮,但新鴻基一直利用逢低收購土地的手法進行土地儲備,這被認為是新鴻基最成功的發展戰略。而通過換地權益書、收購農地、收購擁有大面積土地的工業企業進而更改土地用途,以及利用政府舊區重建企業收地的政策,香港幾大家族壟斷了近70%的地產市場。

1994年後,雖然香港的經濟有起有伏,但是新鴻基的毛利率始終穩定在40%左右,堪稱房地產業的模範生。截至2011年12月,新鴻基地產在香港地產業務方面,擁有土地儲備4670萬平方尺,而在內地,新鴻基目前擁有土地儲備樓面面積達8530萬平方尺。

郭氏家族開發的樓盤包括香港最高的3座建築:香港中環廣場、香港國際金融中心二期,以及香港最高的摩天大樓——約490米高的環球貿易廣場。

新鴻基也因此被稱為香港天際線背後的家族。該公司淨利潤從2009年的104億港元,增長至上一財年的480億港元。2012年公佈的《福布斯》富豪榜顯示,郭氏家族持有這家香港上市公司42%的股份,因此他們的財富估計有183億美元。

官商勾結

1997年,亞洲金融危機席捲香港,房地產泡沫破裂,2002年,香港房地產市場已經比1997年10月縮水近一半,樓價大跌近七成,當大量中產成為負翁之時,房地產公司的盈利看上去卻無大礙。以新鴻基為例,2001~2002財年,新鴻基的利潤非常穩定:85億港幣,其中房產銷售40億,租金的收入也高達40億。

香港學者梁文道曾撰文說,最近10多年來,香港社會對富豪的看法有很大變化。10幾年前坐計程車和司機講起李嘉誠,10個有9個會豎起大拇指,稱他做‘李超人’;今天要是坐計程車和司機討論誠哥近日的事蹟,我保證10個人裡面有10個都會一聽到他的名字就立刻大罵‘官商勾結’。

一面是光鮮亮麗的豪宅和摩天大樓,一面是困頓的籠屋現狀,讓許多港人對這些地產大亨們頗有微詞,高地價、打擊投機不力和房屋援助計畫的停滯給民眾帶來了不滿,而政府在政策上對地產商的傾斜和官商勾結的事件更是飽受批評。

據媒體報導,許仕仁本為政務官,2000年離開公務員隊伍後,出任強積金管理局行政總監,2002年又出任馬會董事。2003年離開強積金管理局,其後自組顧問公司,2004年出任新地旗下的九巴董事,2005年重返政府出任政務司長兩年。

許仕仁一直被指與新地關係密切。2002年末,許仕仁離開強積金局前,曾涉嫌未交租金即入住位於香港跑馬地禮頓山、由新地開發的兩個共逾4000尺的相連豪宅,當中累積涉及租金至少132萬港元。直至2003年11月起,許仕仁才開始每月交租,每單位5.5萬港元,每月合共交租11萬港元。後來租金加至每單位8萬港元,即每月租金16萬港元。雖然許仕仁面對質疑時表示,自己支付了一個月16萬港元的租金,但目前還未有調查結論。

新鴻基執行董事陳巨源的被捕,據聞源於其負責的新鴻基地產土地事務涉及貪腐。有香媒體體報導稱,處理新界大圍香粉寮專案的土地購買期間,該塊土地業主原有意直接賣給新鴻基地產,陳巨源卻表示不感興趣,此後再通過協力廠商公司以高價買入。

此外,陳在香港各界擔任數項公職,既是香港貿易發展局基建發展服務諮詢委員會及中國貿易諮詢委員會的委員,又是香港地產建設商會內地事務委員會、土地及建設諮詢委員會委員。

在新鴻基案之前,2008年曾曝出的梁展文事件也被當成是政府與大地產商勾結的一個例證,其中涉案企業除了新世界地產,也曾涉及新鴻基。

梁展文曾任香港特區屋宇署署長,房屋及規劃地政局常任秘書長。2002年,特區政府宣佈停建、停售居屋,以及終止私人參建計畫。同年,政府與新世界地產公司合作的居屋紅灣半島落成。2004年2月,新世界中國地產以5.932億港元,購入紅灣半島一半股權及貸款,當時政府遭輿論嚴厲批評賤賣紅灣半島。

2007年1月,梁展文退休。2008年8月,梁展文出任新世界中國地產執行董事及副董事總經理,合約3年,年薪312萬港元。公眾譁然。後在輿論壓力下,新世界中國宣佈與梁展文無條件提前解約。

地產霸權

以廉潔透明政府著稱的香港,那些依靠土地致富的大家族、大亨們在資本壯大之後,亦難免會侵蝕政府官員,形成資本的霸權。

在香港,以地產、金融、貿易自由化著稱的另一面,則矗立著六大公司巨頭,也是六大家族。他們分別是和記黃埔的李嘉誠家族、新鴻基的郭氏家族、恒基兆業的李兆基家族、新世界發展的鄭氏家族、九龍倉/會德豐的包氏及吳氏家族、中電控股的嘉道理家族。根據港交所的資料,2010年5月,由這些經濟巨頭操控的主要上市公司,占香港股市總市值(主機板)的14.7%。而在恒生地產分類指數中,新鴻基地產、恒基地產、長江實業、恒隆地產、信和置業這5家香港最大的房地產公司目前均是由創始人家族控股。

在曾任新鴻基地產集團創辦人郭得勝私人助理,並在發展商嘉里建設中負責過土地和物業估價與收購的潘慧嫻看來,這六大家族幾乎壟斷了香港的地產行業和公用事業,主宰著香港的經濟命脈,控制著香港人。

類似家族資本與政府的勾結在香港並不少見。眾所周知,許多地產巨賈及與其關係密切的業務夥伴(包括許多來自銀行、法律、建築、工程和建造業的夥伴),在由800人組成的行政長官選舉委員會中,佔有不少席位。地產界的利益,藉地產及建造界在立法會的功能界別議席獲得充分反映。潘慧嫻在其2010年所著的《地產霸權》一書中說。

《南華早報》曾在2010年披露,六大地產商的董事在政府各個法定諮詢組織裡擔任總共54個職位,比1998年時的16個有大幅上升,就是說地產商在政府法定機構中的影響力越來越大。當然也包括一些公開的醜聞,包括1999年沒有經過公開招標就把數碼港賣給電信盈科的事件,也包括2004年紅灣半島事件,2008年梁展文事件等等。這些都是政府和地產商關係密切的一些證據。

如何對家族壟斷市場的行為做出合理的約束,對資本左右公共權利的制度做進一步的改良,也是香港模式能否再具創新效應面臨的問題。

雷鼎鳴:自由市場、公義與功利



近月香港流行一個十分生動的罵人詞語:地鐵加價,被人罵「賺到盡」;阿信屋減價,被人罵傾銷低價壟斷,也是「賺到盡」;地產商天價售出樓宇,更是不能倖免「地產霸權」、「賺到盡」,罵聲四起。

「賺到盡」一詞內蘊豐富含義,其一是做生意的不應追求利潤最大化(此點與經濟學的假設頗有矛盾);其二是指涉事商人貪婪無道,不理其他人死活,沒有盡社會責任;其三是暗指「賺到盡」背後的功利思想不符公義等等,不一而足。

以功利思想作動力的行為,並不一定可導致符合公義的結果,例如大賊打家劫舍,出發點顯然是自私貪婪的功利思想,結果殊不公義;但社會中若不講利益,甚至人人向雷鋒同志學習,毫不利己,專門利人,社會卻會變得更加公義嗎?

公義一詞的定義各門各派都不一樣,香港對此詞近年用得很濫,而且含糊不清,但究其背後的意義,核心元素之一是平等。平等觀念貫穿社會,在法律面前人人平等, 此點沒有爭議性。大學實行教授治校,在大學的各種委員會中,無論成員職位高低,我們基本上也能貫徹平等思想,其意見是否受重視,只看其是否合理。

功利可導致公義

不過,社會中也有人把平等觀念推得很寬,收入是否接近人人均勻如一,往往被有意無意地當作是衡量公義的準則。此點則大有商榷餘地,因為它與另一價值觀存在很 大的矛盾。用人唯才,報酬獎勵按貢獻或努力而訂,這種meritocracy的思想是很多港人的核心價值,而且其基礎其實也是平等及公正的思想。但收入若 被能力、勤奮程度,冒險精神等等所決定,貧富一定會有很大的差距,此乃彰彰明甚的事實。

為了不捲入價值觀的無聊爭議,我們不妨聚焦在收入分配之上,以它作為公義的準則,並回答在什麼條件下,功利會導致公義。

我們假設人的行動以功利為動力,這並不否定世上真有雷鋒此類「聖人」,但社會中說話時大義凜然,但私下卻只顧個人利益的人太多,更穩妥的做法是以小人之心度 君子之腹,先假設大多數人都是唯利是圖的功利主義者,亞當史密斯「無形之手」的理論的出發點也是假設了功利主義。在人人唯利是圖的情況下,競爭性的自由市 場,我認為是最能把功利轉化為公義的機制。

所謂「自由市場」,是指買賣雙方可自由交易。買方當然希望可便宜一點買到心中愛,賣家則希望價錢愈高愈好,財源滾滾來,買賣雙方其實都希望自己能「賺到盡」。

自由市場中商品價格由供求關係而定,市場競爭價格一經訂定,生產商便要決定生產的數量,初級經濟學告訴我們,追求利潤最大化的商人會把產量訂在價格與生產的 邊際成本剛好相等之處。假如價格是每件10元,但多產一件的額外成本是5元,那麼生產商必定增產。但假如多產一件的額外成本是15元,那麼他必定減產,直 至邊際成本也剛好是10元為止。

倘若有某生產商突然不講利潤,誓言只想「益街坊」,把價錢訂得低於競爭市場的價格,例如像阿信屋一樣,那麼會有什麼後果?

我們大可先假設阿信屋比其他公司更有效率,可直接從外國進貨,降低作本。倘若如此,它的減價活動會造成良性的競爭壓力,迫使其他公司也趕緊提升效率,大家都 可得益。但假如它的減價與效率無關,只是他要「益街坊」大發善心而已,那麼後果反而嚴重。其他公司的客人會被其搶走,隨時倒閉。阿信屋自己也因客人愈來愈 多,無可能繼續維持低價,最後若不加價也要倒閉;由此可見,不講功利的胡亂訂價,最終益不了什麼人。

價格管制產生尋租

我們可考慮另一情況。假設所有的大地產商突然性情大變,把樓價售價下調50%,誓要把地產霸權的帽子摘走。我們將可見到什麼?大量市民會蜂擁而至,炒家黃牛 黨空群而出搶着當排隊黨,數量有限的房子迅即售光。但在供不應求的情況下,誰可買到房子?黃牛黨炒家熟悉情況,最有可能奪得房子後轉手套現,最需要房子的 人不能靠付更高的價錢得到房子,他們也不見得是得益者。

內地過去時有價格管制,以壓抑公司的利益。但有價格管制後便會出現供不應求,誰可得到這些商品?答案是尋租活動會普遍,走後門貪污容易滋生,我們很難稱這些符合公義。

在收入分配上,自由市場亦可達到最合理的效果。市場若有競爭,僱主願意付出的薪金必定等於或十分接近僱員的勞動邊際生產力(marginal product of labor)。倘若多僱用一名員工,他只可能多生產10元的收入,僱主不會付他超過10元的薪酬,否則僱主便不能把利潤最大化。同理,一所公司應投資多少 資金才能賺最多的錢?答案是當資本邊際生產力(marginal product of capital)等於或接近市場利率之時,其原因與勞動市場一致。

經濟學有一著名的定理,叫「歐拉定理」(Euler's Theorem)。在競爭市場中,一間公司的工資會趨向勞動邊際生產力,利率會趨向資本邊際生產力,工人所得(即工資乘上工人人數)加上資本家所得(利率乘上資金數量)會剛好等於該公司的總產量【註】。

勞資均功利主義

這個定理的重要之處,是指出工資多少、利率多少、僱用多少工人、投入多少資金,在自由市場中都有準則,而且對勞動力及資本的報酬,都是根據同一原理算出,市 場力量並無偏幫資本家及工人,十分公平。推動這種結果的動力卻恰好是資本家與工人雙方都是功利主義者,某公司的工資若過低,工人會跑到別處工作;利率過 高,公司也會減少投入資本。

從以上可知,就算人人皆自私自利,自由市場亦可將其轉化為合乎公義的結果。但要指出,市場若缺乏競爭動力,上述 結果未必出現。香港人不滿東隧西隧的高價,究其原因是政府多年前與它們訂下不符經濟邏輯的合約,而香港的法庭亦不懂得在低通脹的條件下,這些隧道的實質回 報率已經是異乎尋常的過高。

香港不少人以為樓價高企是因為地產商有霸權,但倘若他們真有此能耐十年前又怎會阻擋不了房價的大幅下滑?樓價下跌67%之時,地產商哪有半分霸主的氣魄?香港樓價貴的根本原因是政府的土地政策出錯,沒有提供到足夠的土地供應。

自由市場的創富功效宏大,但不可能保證人人有飯可吃,有屋可住。在市場機制中,買賣雙方都不用放棄自求利益的功利心態,但發了財致了富的人卻大可積極參與救急扶貧的慈善活動,此點與自由市場絕無矛盾之處。

註:歐拉定理尚需要一些數學條件才能成立,但自由市場本身卻可導致這些條件的出現。

香港科技大學經濟學系主任

補白:香港一些組織說不同公司的超市某些商品價格一樣,足證它們是合謀訂價搞壟斷云云。也許超市真的在搞壟斷,但我們必須注意到,在完全競爭的市場中,不同 公司的訂價也同樣會相同。如果你公司的價錢比我的訂得低,我怎可不跟隨減價?壟斷合謀會導致相同的價格,競爭市場一樣也會帶來各公司相同的價格,以此作為 壟斷的標準根本毫無意義。香港的某些團體及傳媒的經濟水平,怎地及不上中學生?

古德明: 粗鄙、高雅動人



問: Ghetto一字,字典都說是名詞,但以下一句卻分明用作形容詞,意思是什麼?─ Everything bestowed upon me is way too ghetto。

答: Ghetto作名詞,指少數民族聚居的貧民窟。在美國, ghetto住的多是黑人。俚語用這個字作形容詞,指「粗鄙的」、「破舊的」或「貧民窟似的」,例如:( 1) How ghetto is his neighborhood?(他家附近有多破舊?)( 2) That man/ house is so ghetto(那人真粗鄙/那房子真卑陋)。讀者示下那一句,應是說「給我的一切,都太過鄙俗了」。

留意 ghetto一字,最好不要用作形容詞,除了因為是俚語,還有兩個原因。一是不少人覺得這個字有歧視黑人含義,二是因為這個形容詞的意思不明確,例如 The refrigerator is ghetto一語,可以是指冰箱款式陳舊,也可以指冰箱壞了,不如說 The refrigerator is an old model或 The refrigerator is not working。

問:英文有沒有 divalicious一字?

答:這是個新字,一般字典不載,由 diva、 delicious二字合成。 Delicious當然是「美味的」或「宜人的」, diva則是個雍容高雅、漂亮動人的女郎,特別是歌劇的女歌手。 Divalicious指「有 diva風采的」,例如: That divalicious woman charms everyone she meets(那個雍容高雅、漂亮動人的女郎,誰人見到,都會着迷)。這個字由於還未登字典的大雅之堂,目前最好還是不要用。

陶傑: 唐生美國強姦案



中國留學生唐鵬,在美國愛奧華,藉租樓看房,姦了一個中國女同學,美國警方拘人起訴,男生的父母從大陸拿錢飛來美國,想女受害人改口供,哪知道一併遭到美國人逮捕。

不是一宗罪案,而是「中西文化隔閡」的事件,美國警方應該包容。在中國,凡事可以用錢私了的,都不是問題。一個中國男留學生,姦了一個中國女留學生,雖然發生在美國,但事發地點是中國女留學生擁有的物業,也就是中國人的地方,純屬中國內政。

況且是女事主自己在網上尋求「諮詢」:「這個案件有什麼賠償?金額多少才合適?」「我倆同讀一間大學,我的大學需要賠償給我嗎?」諸如此類。
唐小男生在祖國好端端的沒姦人,來到萬惡的帝國主義美國,就姦了,橘越淮而枳,受害人向美國政府要點錢,彌補心靈創傷,是應該的。

至於大學方面,對中國留學生缺乏文化關懷。譬如,美國是耶教國家,男女淫亂,大學沒有為剛抵埗的中國留學生設立孔子道德補習班,補一補中國儒家理學的「存天理、滅人欲」、「男女授受不親」之類的道德規條,更沒有提醒該男生「唯女子與小人難養也」,你強姦她,她一定會勾結美帝勢力,叫美國警察來抓你。美國的大學沒有這種文化課,是種族歧視,賠償也似乎有責任。

唐鵬的父母從中國拿錢來私了,不想愛奧華的警方浪費美國納稅人的金錢,為了中美兩國人民的友誼,唐爸爸和唐媽媽,也是一片好心。美國人把姓唐的這家人,不分好歹,一概當做唐氏綜合症一樣抓了起來,不尊重東方文化傳統,是很粗暴的行為。

人家願意私了給錢,自行議價,價錢一拍即合之後,以和為貴,「受害人」很有機會乾脆下嫁給唐姓強姦犯,壞事變好事,你美國人干預別國內政,又豈干預這許多?

中國的網民,也隨美國的輿論,罵起自己的祖國來,大罵「中國人習慣貪賄疏通」、「私了即是維穩」,又紛紛崇洋親美,對西方的「司法獨立」盲目吹捧,說人家「法治高於人情」,數典忘祖,這就很不對了。

香港的特府和「知識份子」,對於中西文化隔閡,一向有學術研究:不同的文化,香港人主張要包容,對於美國白人政府拒絕包容中國一對男女同胞提早洞房的文化習俗,政治迫害,我們香港人,實在很憤慨!

顧鴻飛: 這個制度保護不了任何人



薄熙來事件中暴露出來的官場罪惡黑幕,真叫「暗無天日」。一個政治局委員的老婆,可以隨時取人性命,可以收三千萬賄賂賣一個官;一個政治局委員,可以淫人妻女,可以以「打黑」的名義奪人錢財;這還都是浮面的罪惡,仍被掩蓋的不知有多少!一個政治局委員幹這麼多傷天害理的事,如果都叫做「偉大光榮正確」,那還有天理嗎?

如果不是因為權爭,薄熙來夫婦的無法無天誰會知道?比他更高的官,比他更低的官,各有各的道行,一個區委副書記用三千萬買官,豈不又用同樣的方式把他下面的官爵再賣出去?大家都貪,你偏不貪,以你的正直,反襯別人的貪腐,你能生存嗎?溫家寶說:子帥以正,孰敢不正?以薄熙來的例子,應該說:子帥不正,孰敢正?

有本事的官能作惡而不「上身」,當眾道貌岸然,背人雞鳴狗盜,人人都有兩副面孔,個個都人格分裂。認真說起來,整個官場充斥像薄家夫婦這種心態嚴重扭曲、心理極端反常的人,十三億中國人現在就被大量應該看心理醫生的人統治着。 王立軍曾說「我就是當官的嘴裏一塊口香糖,嚼得沒味兒的時候即吐在地上。」那麼誰又是王立軍的口香糖呢?就是他底下那些小官,那誰又是那些小官的口香糖呢?就是老百姓。一層又一層的盤剝、壓榨、摧殘,到最底下那一層,就是十三億中國人。如果這樣的制度還能長治久安,同樣也就沒天理了。

王立軍自覺有性命之虞時,連去北京中央告狀都不敢,因為不知道到北京會發生甚麼事,他兵行險着跑去美國領事館,結果倒是置之死地而後生,算是一條漢子。換言之,這個制度連王立軍都保護不了;不但保護不了沒有權的百姓,也保護不了有權的官;不但保護不了清官,甚至也保護不了貪官。這個制度能保護誰呢?想一想薄熙來如政變成功,誰會變作階下囚?說不定正是被認定為接班人的習近平,如此說來,這個制度連習近平也保護不了。

筆者並非故意危言聳聽,這些都只是常識,只不過大家都裝聾作啞。但不說穿,事情就不存在嗎?把事情說穿了,明白其要害,明白不改變的後果,然後大家才能想辦法去改變。筆者說過多次,一個制度如不能保護所有人,也就保護不了任何一個人。香港建制派一直以「香港大陸化」為職志,彷彿香港變成大陸,他們就有更好的日子過,這些天真的政客應該想一想王立軍、薄熙來的下場。在獨裁體制下,玩政治都是你死我活,而你未必永遠都輪到「活」那一邊,萬一輪到「死」,你就走投無路。

歸根究柢是制度,中國不進行政治制度的大變革,中國就沒有出路——溫家寶說「人亡政息」,語氣沉痛,但他多次呼籲要搞政治改革,卻沒有人理睬他。至少薄熙來現在一定後悔了,早知今日,便應積極推動政治改革,至少有了真正的法治,他現在能得到公平、公開、公正的審訊。

顧鴻飛 自由撰稿人

張華: 方勵之最可貴的貢獻



被稱為中國民主運動「精神導師」的方勵之,周日已在美國亞利桑拿州安葬。王丹、王軍濤等海外民運領袖都表示,方勵之最大的貢獻是啟蒙了一整代中國大學生,「喚醒了人們對人權和民主的嚮往」。

一九八四年已是中國科技大學第一副校長的方勵之,是中國最出色的天文物理學家之一,曾發現類星體、脈衝星等。兩年前因此而當選為美國物理學會會士,其學術成就獲物理學界高度認同。不過,方勵之對人類另一貢獻,就是八十年代對中國年輕知識分子及大學生的啟蒙和身教。

八十年代的中國,剛從文革廢墟中站起來,大批年輕學子懷着報國的赤子之心,卻受知識不足、缺乏獨立思考能力所限,苦無救國之路。此時,少數先鋒人物將西方政治、社會、經濟等新知識引入國內,令年輕人趨之若鶩。方勵之就是透過沙龍、座談會等,向同僚及學生講授民主理論,並在中科大實踐民主。

一九八六年十二月四日,受方勵之等人啟蒙多年的中科大學生,不滿合肥市人大代表等額選舉,指摘這令人大變「橡皮圖章」,大批學生在校內集會,方勵之呼籲大家克制之餘,也說「民主是自下而上爭取的,不是自上而下給予的」。雖然他的演講贏得長久掌聲,但學生還是不理勸阻,走上街頭,半個月後蔓延至上海、北京等地多個城市,是為「八六學潮」,也是八九民運的前奏。八九年,同樣受方勵之啟蒙過的王丹、劉剛等人擔任學生領袖。

可惜,方勵之等人在八十年代殫精竭慮推動啟蒙的成果,在「六四」遭中共的「反啟蒙」所廢:以民族主義洗腦學生,以「一切向錢看」思想消磨國人的理想。就這樣,中國墮落成功利、愚昧的國度。

今天,因為互聯網,很多原本被禁的資訊得以廣泛傳播,愚民、洗腦之大堤被冲破一道缺口,中國正展開另一場民間啟蒙運動。只不過,沒有方勵之這等勇於奉獻、不惜犧牲個人利益的建制精英加以引導,這次啟蒙顯得雜亂無章。

方勵之最可貴之處,正是其奉獻精神。八六學潮後,他被撤職及開除出黨;失去優薪厚祿後,他仍批評中共的四項基本原則;八九年初他上書鄧小平,要求釋放魏京生等政治犯;仍組織沙龍、參加研討會,繼續對學生的啟蒙。今日,大家都學聰明了:只發表意見,不充當領袖。今日的中國不乏意見,卻再沒「意見領袖」!

盧峯: 死不悔改的曾偉雄



若果警務處長曾偉雄先生不改變態度,若果警隊高層繼續一樣對公眾集會、遊行及記者採訪施加不合理的限制,傳媒機構及組織跟警隊的矛盾將會越來越尖銳,警民衝突將會加劇,警隊要有效執法更將會困難重重。

去年,中國副總理李克強先生訪港的採訪及公眾請願安排已引發軒然大波。當時,警隊可說是肆無忌憚的打壓集會及言論自由,包括把示威區設在遠離示威目標的無人之地,包括把正常出入的居民當暴民以武力抬走,包括把正當採訪的記者說成是「黑影」隨意遮擋他們的鏡頭及沒收攝影器材,包括無理截查記者以妨礙他們採訪等。這種種暴行、惡行備受議員、社會人士及輿論猛烈抨擊,曾偉雄先生及警隊管理層也承諾檢討做法,並申言警隊將盡力協助市民行使言論、集會、遊行權利。

可惜,曾先生及警隊的承諾不但沒有兌現,警隊處理公眾示威遊行時的手法更是越來越專斷,警隊在妨礙新聞機構正常採訪時更是越來越不手軟,令人感到港人的基本自由及權利正被執法機關肆意剝奪。近期一些涉及中聯辦的請願示威活動就清楚反映警隊的專橫。前不久過萬名市民參與反對梁振英及「西環治港」大遊行,從中環走到西環中聯辦大樓,接近中聯辦時警隊千方百計阻撓市民走近正門,甚至傳媒採訪也被無理的拒絕及阻撓。即使請願人士最終同意警隊要求,願意二、三十人一組分批到中聯辦正門請願,警隊仍不願放行,反而進一步加強警力圍堵和平請願人士,又以胡椒噴霧近距離及強力的射向市民,令他們蒙受重大的痛楚及傷害。
星期天支聯會紀念六四民主長跑時警隊的處理更是荒謬。首先,警隊要求參與的百多人單行走過中聯辦外,又不准示威者帶同花圈、照片等物品,直到支聯會負責人多番交涉才稍稍放寬規限。而在採訪安排上,警隊在核心保安區以外又自定「核心採訪區」,劃出一個角落只讓四家電視台拍攝正門示威情況,其他記者及攝影記者則被拒諸門外,令記者面對很大的不便及困擾。我們認為,警隊的做法完全是無理及過嚴過苛的,也無視實際的需要及情況。

應該看到,支聯會舉辦六四悼念活動已有二十多年歷史。這二十多年來不管社會氣氛如何,不管參加的人數多少,每一次活動都是和平理性的,沒有破壞秩序,沒有造成任何人命或財物損傷。只要曾先生及警隊高層看一看這樣的歷史,就知道今次長跑悼念活動不是甚麼高風險活動,根本不需要如臨大敵加設多重關卡與限制。誰知道警隊非但沒有盡力協助支聯會順利完成活動,表達悼念與哀思,反而施加大量無理規限,幾乎不讓支聯會代表及市民走到中聯辦請願。這樣還能說是尊重市民的集會、表達自由嗎?

至於胡亂增加採訪限制,只讓少數傳媒拍攝中聯辦正門情況更令人難以接受。新聞採訪自由直接影響公眾知情權,影響市民對公共事務的了解,只有在極例外情況例如公眾安全或健康受到重大威脅時執法部門才可以施加限制。支聯會到中聯辦請願示威只是一般的公眾集會遊行,根本不會對公眾安全或健康構成甚麼影響,警方有甚麼理由設立這樣那樣的禁區,阻撓記者採訪及拍攝呢?
當警隊一再濫用手上權力,隨意侵損市民權利,胡亂對市民的集會遊行施加不合理規限時,市民、團體及政黨肯定會有反彈,並且拒絕接受有關規限。這樣下來,警民衝突肯定將越演越烈。